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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
  <head>
    <title>Correlation Matrix Plot in R: corrplot, ggcorrplot, and ggplot2</title>
    <meta charset="utf-8">
    <meta name="Description" content="Visualize correlation matrices in R with corrplot, ggcorrplot, and ggplot2. Learn color scales, reordering, significance masking, and how to build a polished correlation heatmap from scratch.">
    <meta name="Keywords" content="correlation matrix plot R, corrplot R, ggcorrplot R, correlation heatmap R, R correlation plot, ggplot2 correlation matrix">
    <meta name="Distribution" content="Global">
    <meta name="Author" content="Selva Prabhakaran">
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      html.dark .masthead-search input:focus{border-color:#92a4d8;box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(146,164,216,0.15)}
      html.dark .masthead-icon-btn{color:#b0b5bf}
      html.dark .masthead-icon-btn:hover{background:#1a1d22;color:#e8eaee}
      hr{height:0;box-sizing:content-box;border:0;border-top:1px solid #eee}
      .img-zoomable{cursor:zoom-in;transition:opacity .15s}
      .img-lightbox{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;z-index:10001;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);cursor:zoom-out;align-items:center;justify-content:center}
      .img-lightbox.open{display:flex}
      .img-lightbox img{max-width:95vw;max-height:95vh;border-radius:4px;box-shadow:0 4px 24px rgba(0,0,0,.4)}
      /* CLS prevention: sidebar component styles (match main.css final state) */
      .sidebar-menu{margin:0;padding:0}
      .sidebar-tabs{display:flex;gap:0;margin:4px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #d8dce2}
      .sidebar-tab{flex:1;padding:9px 12px 8px;border:none;background:transparent;font:600 13px 'IBM Plex Sans',sans-serif;color:#757a87;cursor:pointer;border-bottom:2px solid transparent;margin-bottom:-1px;transition:color 0.15s,border-color 0.15s}
      .sidebar-tab.active{color:#1d3158;border-bottom-color:#1d3158}
      .sidebar-panel{display:none;padding-top:10px}
      .sidebar-panel.active{display:block}
      .sidebar-tools-list{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}
      .sidebar-tools-list li a{display:block;padding:5px 10px 5px 24px;font-size:14px;color:#495057;text-decoration:none;border-left:2px solid transparent;border-radius:0 4px 4px 0}
      .sidebar-section-header{padding:7px 12px;font-size:15px;font-weight:700;color:#212529;cursor:pointer;border-radius:4px}
      .sidebar-chevron{display:inline-block;font-size:10px;margin-right:4px;color:#757575}
      .sidebar-section-items{display:none;padding-left:0;margin:2px 0 6px}
      .sidebar-section.expanded .sidebar-section-items{display:block}
      .sidebar-section-items li{line-height:1.5}
      .sidebar-section-items li a{display:block;padding:4px 10px 4px 32px;font-size:14px;color:#495057;text-decoration:none;border-left:2px solid transparent;border-radius:0 4px 4px 0}
      .sidebar-divider{margin:12px 0 2px;padding:0 12px 4px 24px;font-size:11px;font-weight:700;letter-spacing:0.06em;text-transform:uppercase;color:#9ca3af;border-bottom:1px solid #f0f2f5;list-style:none}
      .sidebar-divider:first-child{margin-top:4px}
      .progress-dot{display:inline-block;width:10px;height:10px;border-radius:50%;border:1.5px solid #d1d5db;margin-right:7px;vertical-align:middle;flex-shrink:0;position:relative}
      /* Empty progress-dot (no status class) reads as an unchecked todo /
         disabled radio next to every sidebar item — visual noise that doesn't
         belong in a nav. Reserve the layout slot but hide the circle until
         the item actually has progress. visibility:hidden (not display:none)
         keeps the width stable when state flips. */
      .progress-dot:not(.started):not(.visited):not(.completed){visibility:hidden}
      /* CLS prevention: TOC sidebar matches main.css final state */
      #toc-wrapper{position:sticky;top:20px;max-height:calc(100vh - 40px);overflow-y:auto;padding-left:14px;border-left:1px solid #e9ecef}
      .toc-title{font-size:11px;font-weight:600;text-transform:uppercase;letter-spacing:0.8px;color:#6c757d;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:0}
      #toc{margin:0;padding:0}
      #toc li{line-height:1.45;margin-bottom:1px}
      #toc li a{font-size:13.5px;color:#6c757d;text-decoration:none;display:block;padding:3px 0;border-left:2px solid transparent;padding-left:8px;margin-left:-15px}
      #toc li a.toc-active{color:#1d3158;font-weight:600;border-left-color:#1d3158}
      /* CLS prevention: engagement strip layout (matches engagement.css) */
      .engagement-header{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:center;gap:6px 10px;font-family:'Inter',-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,'Segoe UI',sans-serif;font-size:12px;color:#64748b;letter-spacing:0.01em;margin:0.4em 0 1em;min-height:22px}
      .engagement-header:empty{display:none}
      /* CLS prevention: progress bar space (matches engagement.css) */
      .engagement-progress{min-height:32px;margin:1.2em 0 1.6em}
      /* CLS prevention: WebR editor min-height so the static→textarea swap doesn't shift layout */
      .webr-editor{min-height:60px}
      /* CLS prevention: images in content always reserve aspect ratio */
      #content img{max-width:100%;height:auto}

      /* =====================================================
         LAYOUT V2 (opt-in via body.layout-v2). Retry 2026-05-29.
         Differences from the first attempt:
           1. Sidebar columns use clamp(180px, 16vw, 260px) so they
              SHRINK on narrow viewports (first attempt used minmax
              which pinned both sides at 260px, squeezing content on
              typical laptops to ~460px).
           2. Sidebar links get overflow-wrap so long tutorial titles
              don't escape the narrower column.
           3. min-width:0 on every grid child so they can shrink.
           4. Right TOC breakpoint raised from 1100px -> 1280px so it
              only shows when the viewport can actually afford it.
           5. The inline-code background restyle is dropped - kept
              current syntax-highlighter behavior.
         All rules scoped under body.layout-v2 so pages without it
         render identically.
         ===================================================== */
      body.layout-v2{
        --lv2-bg:#f8f9fb;--lv2-card:#fff;--lv2-ink:#0d1117;
        --lv2-mut:#4b5260;--lv2-faint:#5b6573;
        --lv2-navy:#1c2c4f;--lv2-navy-h:#2d4173;--lv2-navy-soft:#eef1f7;
        --lv2-accent:#2056d2;--lv2-accent-soft:#e9efff;
        --lv2-line:#e4e7ee;--lv2-border:#d4d9e3;
        --lv2-green:#15803d;
        background:var(--lv2-bg);color:var(--lv2-ink);
      }
      html.dark body.layout-v2{
        --lv2-bg:#0a0f1c;--lv2-card:#0f1525;--lv2-ink:#eef2fa;
        --lv2-mut:#a5afc4;--lv2-faint:#9aa6c0;
        --lv2-navy:#5170b3;--lv2-navy-h:#6587c4;--lv2-navy-soft:#192240;
        --lv2-accent:#7faaff;--lv2-accent-soft:#1a2748;
        --lv2-line:#1f2a48;--lv2-border:#2c3a62;
      }

      /* Wider container; clamp-based grid that scales with viewport.
         width:auto is REQUIRED because the base critical CSS has
         @media(min-width:1200px){.container{width:1170px}} which would
         otherwise pin width to 1170 and ignore max-width:1340. */
      body.layout-v2 .container{max-width:1340px;width:auto;padding:0 22px}
      body.layout-v2 .site-masthead-inner{max-width:1340px}
      /* The legacy .site-masthead has margin:0 -15px to cancel the
         Bootstrap .container padding of 15px. Under layout-v2 the
         container padding is 22px, so the negative margin leaves a
         7px inset. Zero it so the masthead aligns flush with the
         article shell. */
      body.layout-v2 .site-masthead{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}
      body.layout-v2 .row{
        display:grid;
        grid-template-columns:
          clamp(180px, 16vw, 260px)
          minmax(0, 1fr)
          clamp(180px, 16vw, 260px);
        gap:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;
      }
      /* Bootstrap inserts .row::before AND .row::after pseudo-elements
         (content:" "; display:table) as a clearfix. Under display:grid
         these pseudos count as grid items. ::before grabs col 1, pushing
         every real child one column to the right and wrapping the last
         child to a new row. The 2026-05-29 first attempt only disabled
         ::after, resulting in nav in col 2, content in col 3, and toc
         wrapping to a new row at col 1 (the bug the user reported as
         "sidebar wide, content narrow"). BOTH pseudos must be killed. */
      body.layout-v2 .row::before,
      body.layout-v2 .row::after{display:none;content:none}
      /* min-width:0 lets grid children shrink below their content's
         intrinsic min-width; without this, long unbreakable text in any
         child forces the column wider than the grid template intended. */
      /* Drop Bootstrap's float and width on the legacy .col-sm-* hooks
         so the parent .row's CSS grid owns sizing. DO NOT zero horizontal
         padding here — per-column padding lives in the dedicated rules
         below (sidebar, main#content, #toc-sidebar) and gives the article
         the 44px breathing room the mock has. */
      body.layout-v2 #nav.col-sm-3,
      body.layout-v2 main#content.col-sm-7,
      body.layout-v2 #toc-sidebar.col-sm-2{
        width:auto!important;float:none!important;
        min-width:0;min-height:0;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #nav.col-sm-3{
        padding:14px 10px 40px;border-right:1px solid var(--lv2-line);
        position:sticky;top:60px;height:calc(100vh - 60px);overflow-y:auto;
      }
      /* Inner #sidebar-nav had its own sticky + overflow from the legacy critical
         CSS; under layout-v2 the outer #nav owns scrolling, so flatten the inner
         one to avoid a double scrollbar. */
      body.layout-v2 #sidebar-nav{
        position:static;max-height:none;overflow:visible;padding:0;
      }
      /* Wrap long tutorial titles in the sidebar so they never overflow */
      body.layout-v2 #nav a,
      body.layout-v2 #nav span,
      body.layout-v2 #sidebar-nav a,
      body.layout-v2 #sidebar-nav li{
        overflow-wrap:break-word;word-break:break-word;
      }
      body.layout-v2 main#content{padding:24px 44px 60px}

      /* S3 — Code-block bottom spacing.
         Default .webr-container margin is 22/22; the dark block visually
         carries a lot of weight, so the next paragraph reads as cramped.
         Lift bottom to 30px under layout-v2. */
      body.layout-v2 #content .webr-container{margin-bottom:30px}

      /* S7 — Further Reading: convert auto-injected <ul> to a 2-column
         card grid that matches the .rt-grid pattern used elsewhere.
         No HTML/auto_link.py changes needed — pure CSS. */
      body.layout-v2 #content #auto-further-reading .further-reading-list{
        list-style:none;padding:0;margin:14px 0 0;
        display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(2,minmax(0,1fr));gap:12px;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content #auto-further-reading .further-reading-list li{margin:0}
      body.layout-v2 #content #auto-further-reading .further-reading-list li a{
        display:block;padding:14px 16px;
        background:var(--lv2-card);border:1px solid var(--lv2-border);
        border-radius:8px;color:var(--lv2-ink);
        font-weight:500;font-size:15px;line-height:1.4;
        text-decoration:none;
        transition:border-color .15s,background .15s,transform .15s;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content #auto-further-reading .further-reading-list li a:hover{
        border-color:var(--lv2-accent);background:var(--lv2-accent-soft);
        text-decoration:none;transform:translateY(-1px);
      }
      @media(max-width:820px){
        body.layout-v2 #content #auto-further-reading .further-reading-list{
          grid-template-columns:1fr;
        }
      }
      body.layout-v2 #toc-sidebar{padding:24px 18px;position:sticky;top:74px;align-self:start}
      @media(max-width:1280px){
        body.layout-v2 .row{grid-template-columns:clamp(180px, 18vw, 260px) minmax(0,1fr)}
        body.layout-v2 #toc-sidebar{display:none}
      }
      @media(max-width:820px){
        body.layout-v2 .row{grid-template-columns:1fr}
        body.layout-v2 #nav{display:none}
        body.layout-v2 main#content{padding:20px}
      }

      /* Typography refresh - sized to mock spec */
      body.layout-v2 #content{
        font-size:16.5px;line-height:1.7;color:var(--lv2-ink);
        font-feature-settings:"tnum","ss01","cv11";text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content p{line-height:1.7;margin:13px 0;color:var(--lv2-ink);text-wrap:pretty}
      body.layout-v2 #content h1{
        font-size:38px;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2;letter-spacing:-0.018em;
        margin:10px 0 13px;text-wrap:balance;color:var(--lv2-ink);
      }
      /* H2: hairline divider + breathing room above. Mock breaks each
         section with a top rule and ~48px space; staging used 34px and no
         divider, leaving sections to blur together. :first-of-type keeps
         the very first H2 flush with the actionbar (no double divider). */
      body.layout-v2 #content h2{
        font-size:25px;font-weight:600;line-height:1.25;letter-spacing:-0.018em;
        margin:48px 0 12px;padding-top:32px;border-top:1px solid var(--lv2-line);
        text-wrap:balance;color:var(--lv2-ink);
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content h2:first-of-type{
        margin-top:24px;padding-top:0;border-top:none;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content h3,body.layout-v2 #content h4{
        font-size:18px;font-weight:600;line-height:1.3;margin:24px 0 8px;text-wrap:balance;color:var(--lv2-ink);
      }
      /* Specificity bump: `body.layout-v2 #content p` (1 id + 1 class
         + 2 elements) was beating `body.layout-v2 p.lead` (2 classes +
         2 elements) and forcing the dek to var(--lv2-ink) instead of
         var(--lv2-mut). Adding #content here matches that specificity. */
      body.layout-v2 #content p.lead{
        font-size:18.5px;line-height:1.6;color:var(--lv2-mut);
        border-left:3px solid var(--lv2-navy);padding-left:17px;margin:-2px 0 20px;font-weight:400;
      }

      /* Body link color: legacy a{color:#1d3158} and Bootstrap .text-muted
         leave inline links almost indistinguishable from body text. Use
         the mock accent so links are obviously clickable. Excludes
         buttons, cards, prev/next nav, and TOC items which have their
         own palette. */
      body.layout-v2 #content a:not(.btn):not(.rt-card):not(.pn-link):not(.lv2-anchor):not([class*="toc"]){
        color:var(--lv2-accent);
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content a:not(.btn):not(.rt-card):not(.pn-link):not(.lv2-anchor):not([class*="toc"]):hover{
        text-decoration:underline;
      }

      /* Inline <code> palette: match the mock's navy-soft tint instead
         of the legacy purple-blue (#eef vs #eef1f7). */
      body.layout-v2 #content :not(pre) > code{
        background:var(--lv2-navy-soft);color:var(--lv2-ink);
        border-radius:4px;padding:2px 5px;font-size:0.92em;
      }

      /* TOC right rail */
      body.layout-v2 #toc-sidebar .toc-title{font-size:10.5px;font-weight:700;text-transform:uppercase;letter-spacing:.08em;color:var(--lv2-faint);margin-bottom:9px}
      body.layout-v2 #toc{font-size:13px}
      body.layout-v2 #toc li{margin:0;line-height:1.45}
      body.layout-v2 #toc li a{
        display:block;padding:5px 0 5px 11px;
        border-left:2px solid var(--lv2-line);
        color:var(--lv2-faint);font-size:13px;
        transition:color .15s,border-color .15s;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #toc li a:hover{color:var(--lv2-ink)}
      body.layout-v2 #toc li a.toc-active{
        border-left-color:var(--lv2-navy);color:var(--lv2-ink);font-weight:600;
      }

      /* Reading progress bar - uses transform:scaleX so we don't fight any
         containing-block / overflow quirks that can pin a width-% bar to 0. */
      .lv2-progress{
        position:fixed;top:0;left:0;width:100vw;height:3px;
        background:var(--lv2-accent,#2056d2);z-index:90;
        transform:scaleX(0);transform-origin:left center;
        transition:transform .1s ease-out;pointer-events:none;
      }

      /* Heading anchor links (hover-reveal) */
      body.layout-v2 #content h2,
      body.layout-v2 #content h3,
      body.layout-v2 #content h4{position:relative}
      body.layout-v2 .lv2-anchor{
        position:absolute;left:-26px;top:50%;transform:translateY(-50%);
        font-size:.55em;color:var(--lv2-faint);text-decoration:none;
        opacity:0;transition:opacity .15s,color .15s;
        cursor:pointer;padding:4px 6px;line-height:1;font-weight:400;
      }
      body.layout-v2 #content h2:hover .lv2-anchor,
      body.layout-v2 #content h3:hover .lv2-anchor,
      body.layout-v2 #content h4:hover .lv2-anchor,
      body.layout-v2 .lv2-anchor:focus-visible{opacity:1}
      body.layout-v2 .lv2-anchor:hover{color:var(--lv2-accent)}
      @media(max-width:820px){body.layout-v2 .lv2-anchor{left:0;top:-22px;transform:none}}

      /* Focus ring refresh */
      body.layout-v2 a:focus-visible,
      body.layout-v2 button:focus-visible,
      body.layout-v2 input:focus-visible,
      body.layout-v2 textarea:focus-visible{
        outline:none;
        box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(32,86,210,.22);
        border-radius:4px;
      }
      html.dark body.layout-v2 a:focus-visible,
      html.dark body.layout-v2 button:focus-visible,
      html.dark body.layout-v2 input:focus-visible{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(127,170,255,.22)}

      /* Reduced motion: shut everything down for users who request it */
      @media (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){
        body.layout-v2 *,body.layout-v2 *::before,body.layout-v2 *::after{
          animation-duration:0.01ms!important;
          animation-iteration-count:1!important;
          transition-duration:0.01ms!important;
          scroll-behavior:auto!important;
        }
      }
    </style>
    <!-- Full Bootstrap deferred (non-render-blocking) -->
    <link href="www/bootstrap.min.css?h=dae0a568" rel="stylesheet" media="print" onload="this.media='all'">
    <noscript><link href="www/bootstrap.min.css?h=dae0a568" rel="stylesheet"></noscript>
    <link href="www/highlight.min.css?h=f103014a" rel="stylesheet" media="print" onload="this.media='all'">
    <link href="css/main.min.css?h=5ca8bbcb" rel="stylesheet" media="print" onload="this.media='all'">
    <noscript><link href="css/main.min.css?h=5ca8bbcb" rel="stylesheet"></noscript>
    <style>
      a{color:#1d3158}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}
      li{line-height:1.65}
      .MathJax_Display{margin:0}
      blockquote p{line-height:1.75;color:#717171}
      /* engagement.js renders a meta strip into .engagement-header that
         duplicates the byline (difficulty + time). Hide it; saved-posts-
         button.js reads the data-* attrs directly for the byline. */
      .engagement-header{display:none!important}
      /* Byline (saved-posts widget rebuilds this after H1+lead, mock-style) */
      .byline{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:center;gap:8px;
        font-size:13.5px;color:#4b5260;margin:6px 0 16px;line-height:1.5}
      /* P1 — bump avatar 26→30 to match mock visual weight. */
      .byline .av-sm{width:30px;height:30px;border-radius:50%;
        background:linear-gradient(135deg,#1c2c4f,#2d4173);color:#fff;
        display:inline-flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;
        font-weight:700;font-size:12px;flex:none;letter-spacing:.02em}
      .byline .who{color:#0d1117;font-weight:600}
      .byline .dot{color:#c0c5cf}
      .byline .rev{color:#137a3e;font-weight:600;display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:4px}
      .byline .time{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:4px;color:#6b7280}
      .byline .diff{font-size:10.5px;font-weight:700;text-transform:uppercase;
        letter-spacing:.05em;background:#eef1f7;color:#4b5260;
        padding:3px 8px;border-radius:999px;margin-left:2px}

      /* Action bar (saved-posts widget injects this after byline) */
      .actionbar{display:flex;align-items:center;gap:9px;margin:10px 0 26px;padding:12px 0;
        border-top:1px solid #e4e7ee;border-bottom:1px solid #e4e7ee;flex-wrap:wrap}
      .actionbar .act{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:6px;border:1px solid #d4d9e3;
        background:#fff;border-radius:9px;padding:7px 12px;font-size:13px;font-weight:600;
        color:#4b5260;cursor:pointer;font-family:inherit;
        transition:border-color .15s,color .15s,background .15s}
      .actionbar .act:hover{border-color:#0a0d14;color:#0a0d14}
      .actionbar .act.bookmark-btn[data-saved="1"]{background:#fef3c7;border-color:#f59e0b;color:#92400e}
      .actionbar .act.bookmark-btn[data-saved="1"] svg{fill:#f59e0b}
      .actionbar .act:disabled{opacity:.55;cursor:wait}
      .actionbar-sync{margin-left:auto;font-size:12px;color:#6b7280}
      .actionbar-sync a{color:#2056d2;font-weight:600;text-decoration:none}
      .actionbar-sync a:hover{text-decoration:underline}

      /* Dark-mode overrides for byline + actionbar. The hard-coded #0d1117
         on .who renders invisible on the dark background; the action-bar
         borders and surfaces also need to flip. Tokens (--lv2-ink, --lv2-mut,
         --lv2-line, --lv2-card) already swap under html.dark body.layout-v2;
         we just need to point the hard-coded rules at them under dark. */
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .byline{color:var(--lv2-mut)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .byline .who{color:var(--lv2-ink)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .byline .dot{color:var(--lv2-faint)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .byline .time{color:var(--lv2-mut)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .byline .diff{background:var(--lv2-navy-soft);color:var(--lv2-mut)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .actionbar{border-top-color:var(--lv2-line);border-bottom-color:var(--lv2-line)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .actionbar .act{background:var(--lv2-card);border-color:var(--lv2-border);color:var(--lv2-mut)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .actionbar .act:hover{border-color:var(--lv2-ink);color:var(--lv2-ink)}
      html.dark body.layout-v2 .actionbar-sync{color:var(--lv2-mut)}

      /* Toast (Share button "Link copied" feedback) */
      .rs-toast{position:fixed;bottom:24px;left:50%;transform:translateX(-50%) translateY(8px);
        background:#0a0d14;color:#fff;padding:9px 18px;border-radius:8px;font-size:13px;
        font-family:'IBM Plex Sans',sans-serif;z-index:1000;opacity:0;pointer-events:none;
        transition:opacity .2s,transform .2s;box-shadow:0 8px 24px rgba(10,13,20,.25)}
      .rs-toast.show{opacity:1;transform:translateX(-50%) translateY(0)}
      /* Auth-state visibility helpers (used by masthead variants) */
      .auth-anon,.auth-user{display:none}
      body.state-anon .auth-anon{display:inline-flex;align-items:center}
      body.state-pro .auth-user{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:8px}
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data-subkey="sec2sub3"><a href="/Violin-Plot-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Violin Plot</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub3"><a href="/Ridgeline-Plot-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Ridgeline Plot</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub3"><a href="/Lollipop-Chart-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Lollipop Chart</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec2sub4" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Relationships</li><li data-subkey="sec2sub4"><a href="/Bubble-Chart-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Bubble Chart</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub4"><a href="/Heatmap-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Heatmap in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub4"><a href="/Correlation-Matrix-Plot-in-R.html" class="active"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Correlation Matrix</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec2sub5" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Advanced Charts</li><li data-subkey="sec2sub5"><a href="/Pie-Donut-Chart-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Pie &amp; Donut Chart</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub5"><a href="/Treemap-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Treemap</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub5"><a href="/Waffle-Chart-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Waffle Chart</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec2sub6" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Exploratory Analysis</li><li data-subkey="sec2sub6"><a href="/Exploratory-Data-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>EDA (7-Step Framework)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub6"><a href="/Univariate-EDA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Univariate EDA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub6"><a href="/Bivariate-EDA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Bivariate EDA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub6"><a href="/Descriptive-Statistics-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Descriptive Statistics</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub6"><a href="/Correlation-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Correlation Analysis</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec2sub7" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Interactive &amp; Maps</li><li data-subkey="sec2sub7"><a href="/Combining-ggplot2-with-plotly.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>ggplot2 + plotly Interactive</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub7"><a href="/Interactive-Maps-in-R-with-leaflet.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Leaflet Interactive Maps</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub7"><a href="/Spatial-Data-in-R-with-sf.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Spatial Data (sf)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec2sub7"><a href="/Choropleth-Maps-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Choropleth Maps (sf)</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider 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class="sidebar-chevron">&#9656;</span> Statistics<span class="section-meta" data-section-meta></span></div><ul class="sidebar-section-items list-unstyled"><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec3sub1" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> EDA &amp; Data Quality</li><li data-subkey="sec3sub1"><a href="/Automated-EDA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Automated EDA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub1"><a href="/Missing-Data-Visualization-in-R-naniar.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Missing Data Viz (naniar)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub1"><a href="/Outlier-Detection-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Outlier Detection</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec3sub2" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Probability</li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Sample-Spaces-Events-and-Probability-Axioms-in-R-With-Monte-Carlo-Proof.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Probability Axioms</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Conditional-Probability-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Conditional Probability</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Random-Variables-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Random Variables</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Binomial-and-Poisson-Distributions-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Binomial vs Poisson</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Normal-t-F-and-Chi-Squared-Distributions-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Normal, t, F, Chi-Squared</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Central-Limit-Theorem-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Central Limit Theorem</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Sampling-Distributions-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Sampling Distributions</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Law-of-Large-Numbers-vs-CLT-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>LLN vs CLT</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/What-Is-Probability-Simulation-First-Intuition-in-R-Before-the-Formulas.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Probability (Simulation-First)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub2"><a href="/Expected-Value-and-Variance-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Expected Value and Variance</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec3sub3" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Inference &amp; Estimation</li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Maximum-Likelihood-Estimation-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Maximum Likelihood Estimation</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Hypothesis-Testing-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Hypothesis Testing</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Sample-Size-Planning-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Sample Size Planning</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Which-Statistical-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Choosing the Right Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Statistical-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Statistical Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Measures-of-Association-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Measures of Association</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Point-Estimation-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Point Estimation</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Confidence-Intervals-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Confidence Intervals</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Type-I-and-Type-II-Errors-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Type I and II Errors</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Statistical-Power-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Power Analysis</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Effect-Size-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Effect Size</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/t-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>t-Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Proportion-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Proportion Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Normality-and-Variance-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Normality &amp; Variance Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Chi-Square-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Chi-Square Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney-and-Kruskal-Wallis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney &amp; Kruskal-Wallis</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Multiple-Comparisons-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Multiple Testing Correction</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub3"><a href="/Hypothesis-Testing-Exercises-in-R-quiz.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Hypothesis Testing Quiz</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec3sub4" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Regression</li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Linear-Regression.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Linear Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Logistic-Regression-With-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Logistic Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Variable-Selection-and-Importance-With-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Feature Selection</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Model-Selection-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Model Selection</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Missing-Value-Treatment-With-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Missing Value Treatment</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Outlier-Treatment-With-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Outlier Analysis</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/adv-regression-models.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Advanced Regression Models</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub4"><a href="/Linear-Regression-Exercises-in-R-quiz.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Linear Regression Quiz</a></li><li class="sidebar-divider sidebar-subsection-toggle" data-subkey="sec3sub5" data-collapsed="false"><span class="subsec-chevron">&#9660;</span> Reporting</li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Statistical-Consulting-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Statistical Consulting</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Statistical-Report-Writing-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Statistical Report Writing</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Bootstrap-Confidence-Intervals-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Bootstrap Confidence Intervals</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Reporting-Statistics-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Reporting Statistics</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Correlation-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Correlation (Pearson, Spearman, Kendall)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Linear-Regression-Assumptions-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Linear Regression Assumptions</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Dummy-Variables-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Dummy Variables in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Interaction-Effects-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Interaction Effects</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Regression-Diagnostics-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Regression Diagnostics</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Logistic-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Logistic Regression (glm + ROC)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Variable-Selection-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Variable Selection</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Poisson-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Poisson Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Ridge-and-Lasso-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Ridge &amp; Lasso Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Polynomial-and-Spline-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Polynomial &amp; Splines</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Regression-Tables-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Regression Tables (3 packages)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/One-Way-ANOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>One-Way ANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Post-Hoc-Tests-After-ANOVA.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Post-Hoc Tests After ANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Two-Way-ANOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Two-Way ANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Repeated-Measures-ANOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Repeated Measures ANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/ANCOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>ANCOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Experimental-Design-Principles-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Experimental Design in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Factorial-Experiments-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Factorial Designs (2^k)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/AB-Testing-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>A/B Testing</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/MANOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>MANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Mixed-ANOVA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Mixed ANOVA</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Multivariate-Statistics-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Multivariate Distances &amp; Hotelling's T²</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/PCA-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>PCA with prcomp()</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Interpreting-PCA-Results-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Interpreting PCA Output</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Exploratory-Factor-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Exploratory Factor Analysis</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/CFA-and-Structural-Equation-Modeling-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>SEM and CFA (lavaan)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Linear-Discriminant-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>LDA (Linear Discriminant Analysis)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Cluster-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Clustering (k-Means / HC / DBSCAN)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Correspondence-Analysis-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Correspondence Analysis</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/t-SNE-and-UMAP-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>t-SNE and UMAP</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Simple-Linear-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Simple Linear Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Multiple-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Multiple Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Robust-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Robust Regression (rlm)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/factoextra-and-FactoMineR.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>factoextra (PCA + Clusters)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Categorical-Data-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Categorical Data (Tables &amp; Mosaic)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Chi-Square-Test-of-Independence-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Chi-Square Test of Independence</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Chi-Square-Goodness-of-Fit-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Fishers-Exact-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Fisher's Exact Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Odds-Ratios-and-Relative-Risk-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Odds Ratios &amp; Relative Risk</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Logistic-Regression-in-R-2.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Logistic Regression (Diagnostics)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Poisson-and-Negative-Binomial-Regression.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Poisson &amp; Negative Binomial Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Multinomial-and-Ordinal-Logistic-Regression-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Multinomial &amp; Ordinal Logistic Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/When-to-Use-Nonparametric-Tests-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>When to Use Nonparametric Tests</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Wilcoxon-Signed-Rank-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Mann-Whitney-U-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Mann-Whitney U Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Kruskal-Wallis-Test-in-R-2.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Kruskal-Wallis Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Friedman-Test-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Friedman Test</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Spearman-and-Kendall-Correlation-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Spearman &amp; Kendall Correlation</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Bootstrap-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Bootstrap (boot package)</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Quantile-Regression-in-R-2.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Quantile Regression</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Matrix-Operations-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Matrix Operations in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Solving-Linear-Systems-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Solving Linear Systems in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Eigenvalues-and-Eigenvectors-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Eigenvalues &amp; Eigenvectors in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Singular-Value-Decomposition-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Singular Value Decomposition in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Projections-and-the-Hat-Matrix-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Projections &amp; the Hat Matrix</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/QR-Decomposition-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>QR Decomposition in R</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a href="/Quadratic-Forms-in-R.html"><span class="progress-dot"></span>Quadratic Forms</a></li><li data-subkey="sec3sub5"><a 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          <nav class="breadcrumb-nav" aria-label="Breadcrumb"><a href="/">Home</a> <span class="breadcrumb-sep">&rsaquo;</span> <span>Visualization</span> <span class="breadcrumb-sep">&rsaquo;</span> <span class="breadcrumb-current">Correlation Matrix Plot in R: corrplot, ggcorrplot, and ggplot2</span></nav>
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<h1>Correlation Matrix Plot in R: corrplot, ggcorrplot, and ggplot2</h1>

<p class="lead">A <a class="auto-link" href="ggplot2-geom_tile-in-R.html" title="ggplot2 geom_tile() in R: Heatmaps With Examples">correlation matrix plot</a> shows pairwise Pearson (or Spearman) correlations between all numeric variables in a dataset, typically as a color grid where warm colors mean strong positive correlation and cool colors mean negative correlation.</p>
<div class="post-byline" style="color:#6b7280;font-size:14px;margin:2px 0 18px 0;line-height:1.5;">By <strong>Selva Prabhakaran</strong> &nbsp;&middot;&nbsp; Published May 23, 2026 &nbsp;&middot;&nbsp; Last updated May 23, 2026</div>

<div class="engagement-header" data-difficulty="Intermediate" data-time="15" data-exercises="7" data-xp="105"></div>

<h2>Introduction</h2>

<p>When you have a dataset with 5-20 numeric variables, running <code>cor()</code> returns a matrix of numbers that's hard to parse at a glance. A correlation matrix plot turns that matrix into a color grid where patterns jump out immediately: clusters of highly correlated variables, variables that are negatively related, and variables that are independent.</p>

<p>There are three common approaches in R:</p>

<ol>

<li><strong>ggplot2 + geom_tile()</strong>, full manual control, no extra packages</li>

<li><strong>ggcorrplot</strong>, wraps ggplot2 with sensible correlation-plot defaults (reordering, significance masking, upper/lower triangle)</li>

<li><strong>corrplot</strong>, base-R graphics, extremely feature-rich for publication</li>

</ol>

<p>This post covers all three, starting with the ggplot2 approach to understand the mechanics, then showing how ggcorrplot streamlines the workflow.</p>

<h2>How do you compute and reshape a correlation matrix for plotting?</h2>

<p>Start with <code>cor()</code> to get the correlation matrix, then reshape it to long format for ggplot2.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Compute correlation and reshape long">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Compute correlation and reshape long</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="nf">library</span>(ggplot2)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Use numeric columns from mtcars</span></span>
<span class="cl">num_vars <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;mpg&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;cyl&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;disp&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;hp&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;drat&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;wt&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;qsec&quot;</span>)</span>
<span class="cl">cor_mat  <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">cor</span>(mtcars[, num_vars], use <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;complete.obs&quot;</span>)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Reshape to long format: one row per (var1, var2, correlation) triplet</span></span>
<span class="cl">cor_long <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">as.data.frame</span>(<span class="nf">as.table</span>(cor_mat))</span>
<span class="cl"><span class="nf">names</span>(cor_long) <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;Var1&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;Var2&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;Correlation&quot;</span>)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl"><span class="nf">head</span>(cor_long, <span class="m">6</span>)</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<p><code>as.table(cor_mat)</code> converts the matrix to a table, and <code>as.data.frame()</code> flattens it to long format. Every pair of variables gets its own row, including the diagonal (self-correlation = 1) and both upper and lower triangle.</p>

<section class="tryit-block">
<p><strong>Try it:</strong> After running this, type <code>nrow(cor_long)</code>, it should equal <code>n_vars² = 7² = 49</code> rows (all pairs including self-pairs and duplicates from both triangles).</p>
</section>

<h2>How do you build a basic correlation heatmap with ggplot2?</h2>

<p>Once you have long-format data, <code>geom_tile()</code> creates the color grid and <code>scale_fill_gradient2()</code> applies the diverging color scale.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Basic correlation heatmap with ggplot2">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Basic correlation heatmap with ggplot2</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Basic correlation heatmap with ggplot2</span></span>
<span class="cl">p_basic <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">ggplot</span>(cor_long, <span class="nf">aes</span>(x <span class="o">=</span> Var1, y <span class="o">=</span> Var2, fill <span class="o">=</span> Correlation)) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">geom_tile</span>(color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, linewidth <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0.5</span>) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">scale_fill_gradient2</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    low      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#4393c3&quot;</span>,   <span class="c1"># blue = negative</span></span>
<span class="cl">    mid      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    high     <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#d6604d&quot;</span>,   <span class="c1"># red = positive</span></span>
<span class="cl">    midpoint <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    limits   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="m">-1</span>, <span class="m">1</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    name     <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Correlation&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">labs</span>(title <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;mtcars Correlation Matrix&quot;</span>, x <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">NULL</span>, y <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">NULL</span>) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme_minimal</span>() <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    axis.text.x <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(angle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">45</span>, hjust <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">1</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    panel.grid  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_blank</span>()</span>
<span class="cl">  )</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_basic</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<p><code>scale_fill_gradient2()</code> with <code>midpoint = 0</code> and <code>limits = c(-1, 1)</code> anchors white to zero, strong positive correlations go red, strong negative go blue. The neutral variables appear white.</p>

<section class="tryit-block">
<p><strong>Try it:</strong> Change <code>low = &quot;#4393c3&quot;</code> and <code>high = &quot;#d6604d&quot;</code> to <code>low = &quot;#2166ac&quot;</code> and <code>high = &quot;#b2182b&quot;</code> for deeper, more saturated colors. Then try <code>scale_fill_viridis_c(limits = c(-1, 1), option = &quot;RdYlBu&quot;, direction = -1)</code>.</p>
</section>

<h2>How do you use ggcorrplot for a smarter correlation plot?</h2>

<p><code>ggcorrplot</code> automates the tricky parts: hierarchical reordering of variables (grouping correlated variables together), masking the redundant triangle, and <a class="auto-link" href="Hypothesis-Testing-in-R.html" title="Hypothesis Testing in R: Understand the Framework, Not Just the p-Value">p-value</a> significance filtering.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Smart heatmap with ggcorrplot">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Smart heatmap with ggcorrplot</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="nf">library</span>(ggcorrplot)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl"><span class="c1"># ggcorrplot: reorder by hierarchical clustering, show upper triangle</span></span>
<span class="cl">p_ggcorr <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">ggcorrplot</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">  cor_mat,</span>
<span class="cl">  method   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;square&quot;</span>,       <span class="c1"># or &quot;circle&quot; for circle-sized plot</span></span>
<span class="cl">  type     <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;upper&quot;</span>,        <span class="c1"># show upper triangle only</span></span>
<span class="cl">  hc.order <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,           <span class="c1"># reorder by hierarchical clustering</span></span>
<span class="cl">  lab      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,           <span class="c1"># show correlation values</span></span>
<span class="cl">  lab_size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">3</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  colors   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;#4393c3&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;#d6604d&quot;</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">  outline.color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  ggtheme  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">theme_minimal</span>()</span>
<span class="cl">) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">labs</span>(title <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;mtcars Correlation Matrix (Clustered)&quot;</span>)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_ggcorr</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<p><code>hc.order = TRUE</code> clusters variables so highly correlated ones sit near each other, making patterns (like the <code>cyl</code>, <code>disp</code>, <code>hp</code>, <code>wt</code> cluster) visually obvious. <code>type = &quot;upper&quot;</code> shows only the upper triangle, eliminating the redundant mirror image.</p>

<section class="tryit-block">
<p><strong>Try it:</strong> Change <code>method = &quot;square&quot;</code> to <code>method = &quot;circle&quot;</code>, circles sized by correlation magnitude instead of solid colored squares. Which communicates the strength of weak correlations more clearly?</p>
</section>

<h2>How do you show only the upper or lower triangle?</h2>

<p>Showing both triangles is redundant (the matrix is symmetric). Use <code>type = &quot;upper&quot;</code> in ggcorrplot, or manually filter in the ggplot2 approach.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Show only the upper triangle">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Show only the upper triangle</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Upper triangle only in ggcorrplot</span></span>
<span class="cl">p_upper <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">ggcorrplot</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">  cor_mat,</span>
<span class="cl">  type     <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;upper&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  hc.order <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  lab      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  lab_size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">3.5</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  colors   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;#4393c3&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;#d6604d&quot;</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">  outline.color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;grey80&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  tl.cex   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">11</span>,     <span class="c1"># axis label font size</span></span>
<span class="cl">  tl.srt   <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">45</span>,     <span class="c1"># axis label rotation</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ggtheme  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">theme_minimal</span>(base_size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">12</span>)</span>
<span class="cl">) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">labs</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    title    <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Pairwise Correlations, mtcars&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    subtitle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Upper triangle | Clustered by similarity&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    plot.title    <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(face <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;bold&quot;</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    plot.subtitle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;grey50&quot;</span>, size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">10</span>)</span>
<span class="cl">  )</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_upper</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<section class="tryit-block">
<p><strong>Try it:</strong> Add <code>p.mat = cor_pmat(cor_mat)</code> and <code>sig.level = 0.05</code> inside <code>ggcorrplot()</code>, this masks correlations that are not statistically significant (p > 0.05) with an X mark, so readers know which correlations are reliable.</p>
</section>

<h2>How do you add correlation value labels to tiles?</h2>

<p>Labels inside tiles let readers see exact values without needing to reference a color scale. The key is switching text color for dark tiles so labels remain readable.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Add correlation labels to tiles">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Add correlation labels to tiles</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Add correlation labels, switching color for contrast</span></span>
<span class="cl">cor_long<span class="o">$</span>abs_cor <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">abs</span>(cor_long<span class="o">$</span>Correlation)</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_labels <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">ggplot</span>(cor_long, <span class="nf">aes</span>(x <span class="o">=</span> Var1, y <span class="o">=</span> Var2, fill <span class="o">=</span> Correlation)) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">geom_tile</span>(color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, linewidth <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0.5</span>) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">geom_text</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    <span class="nf">aes</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">      label <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">round</span>(Correlation, <span class="m">2</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">      color <span class="o">=</span> abs_cor <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="m">0.5</span>   <span class="c1"># white text on strong-colored tiles</span></span>
<span class="cl">    ),</span>
<span class="cl">    size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">3</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">scale_fill_gradient2</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    low <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#4393c3&quot;</span>, mid <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, high <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#d6604d&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    midpoint <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0</span>, limits <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="m">-1</span>, <span class="m">1</span>), name <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;r&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">scale_color_manual</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    values <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;FALSE&quot;</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;grey30&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;TRUE&quot;</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    guide  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;none&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">labs</span>(title <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Correlation Matrix with Labels&quot;</span>, x <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">NULL</span>, y <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">NULL</span>) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme_minimal</span>() <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    axis.text.x <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(angle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">45</span>, hjust <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">1</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    panel.grid  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_blank</span>()</span>
<span class="cl">  )</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_labels</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<p><code>color = abs_cor &gt; 0.5</code> switches between white text (for dark tiles with strong correlations) and grey text (for pale tiles near zero). This is the same technique used in the Heatmap-in-R post.</p>

<section class="tryit-block">
<p><strong>Try it:</strong> Change the threshold from <code>0.5</code> to <code>0.3</code>, more tiles get white text. Find the threshold that gives the best contrast for your color palette.</p>
</section>

<h2>Complete Example: Publication-Ready Correlation Plot</h2>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Publication-ready plot with p-values">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Publication-ready plot with p-values</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Polished upper-triangle correlation plot with significance</span></span>
<span class="cl">cor_p <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">cor_pmat</span>(mtcars[, num_vars])   <span class="c1"># p-value matrix from ggcorrplot</span></span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_final <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">ggcorrplot</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">  cor_mat,</span>
<span class="cl">  type          <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;upper&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  hc.order      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  method        <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;square&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  lab           <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">TRUE</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  lab_size      <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">3.2</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  p.mat         <span class="o">=</span> cor_p,</span>
<span class="cl">  sig.level     <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0.05</span>,         <span class="c1"># mask non-significant correlations</span></span>
<span class="cl">  insig         <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;blank&quot;</span>,      <span class="c1"># show blank for non-significant</span></span>
<span class="cl">  colors        <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">c</span>(<span class="s">&quot;#2166ac&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, <span class="s">&quot;#b2182b&quot;</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">  outline.color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  tl.cex        <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">11</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  tl.srt        <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">45</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">  ggtheme       <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">theme_minimal</span>(base_size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">12</span>)</span>
<span class="cl">) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">labs</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    title    <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Correlation Matrix, mtcars Variables&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    subtitle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Only statistically significant correlations shown (p &lt; 0.05, FDR not applied)&quot;</span>,</span>
<span class="cl">    caption  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;Clustered by hierarchical grouping | Upper triangle only&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  ) <span class="o">+</span></span>
<span class="cl">  <span class="nf">theme</span>(</span>
<span class="cl">    plot.title    <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(face <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;bold&quot;</span>, size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">14</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    plot.subtitle <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;grey50&quot;</span>, size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">10</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    plot.caption  <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nf">element_text</span>(color <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;grey60&quot;</span>, size <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">9</span>),</span>
<span class="cl">    legend.position <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;right&quot;</span></span>
<span class="cl">  )</span>
<span class="cl"></span>
<span class="cl">p_final</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
    <pre class="webr-output"></pre>
  </div>
  <div class="webr-plot-output"></div>
</div>

<h2>Common Mistakes and How to Fix Them</h2>

<h3>Mistake 1: Not using a diverging color scale</h3>

<p>❌ A sequential scale (e.g., <code>scale_fill_viridis_c()</code>) has no clear midpoint at zero, making it hard to tell positive from negative correlations.</p>

<p>✅ Always use a diverging scale anchored at 0:</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Common mistake: wrong color scale">
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    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Common mistake: wrong color scale</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="nf">scale_fill_gradient2</span>(low <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#4393c3&quot;</span>, mid <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;white&quot;</span>, high <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;#d6604d&quot;</span>, midpoint <span class="o">=</span> <span class="m">0</span>)</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
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<h3>Mistake 2: Including non-numeric columns in cor()</h3>

<p><code>cor()</code> fails if any column is non-numeric. Always subset to numeric columns first.</p>

<div class="webr-container" data-block-title="Common mistake: non-numeric columns">
  <div class="webr-code-block">
    <div class="webr-header"><div class="webr-header-left"><span class="webr-header-badge">R</span><span class="webr-header-label">Common mistake: non-numeric columns</span></div><div class="webr-header-right"><button type="button" class="webr-copy-btn" aria-label="Copy code" title="Copy code"><svg width="14" height="14" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" aria-hidden="true"><rect x="9" y="9" width="13" height="13" rx="2" ry="2"/><path d="M5 15H4a2 2 0 0 1-2-2V4a2 2 0 0 1 2-2h9a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v1"/></svg></button><button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run <span class="webr-run-shortcut">Ctrl+Enter</span></button></div></div>
    <div class="webr-editor" data-language="r"><span class="cl"><span class="c1"># Correct: subset to numeric only</span></span>
<span class="cl">num_df <span class="o">&lt;-</span> mtcars[, <span class="nf">sapply</span>(mtcars, is.numeric)]</span>
<span class="cl">cor_mat <span class="o">&lt;-</span> <span class="nf">cor</span>(num_df)</span></div>
    <div class="webr-buttons">
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary webr-run-btn" onclick="runWebR(this)">&#9654; Run</button>
      <button class="btn btn-sm btn-default webr-reset-btn" onclick="resetWebR(this)">&#8634; Reset</button>
    </div>
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<h3>Mistake 3: Not setting limits = c(-1, 1) in the color scale</h3>

<p>Without explicit limits, the scale anchors to the <a class="auto-link" href="base-range-in-R.html" title="range() in R: Find Min and Max in One Call">min and max</a> of your data, not to -1 and 1. A maximum correlation of 0.95 would push the color scale, making 0.7 look "light" when it's actually strong.</p>